Research and discuss critically this post:
Memory serves as a library of past experiences, influencing how we perceive the world, and shaping the decisions we make in the present and future. Throughout history, the understanding of memory has evolved from a philosophical interpretation to a scientific framework which has led to a variety of models and theories. These concepts have developed our understanding of memory function and its influence on behaviour (Roediger & Yamashiro, 2019; Tyng et al., 2017; Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019). This paper will evaluate cognitive psychology and neuropsychology’s contribution to our understanding of memory function with specific attention to the model, declarative, procedural memory and the neural mechanisms underlying memory formation and retrieval.
The study of cognitive psychology looks to better understand and interpret mental processes of the brain such as perception, memory, and reasoning (APA, 2018). One of the most referred to models of memory is the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model, devised by two cognitive psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (Atkinson & Shiffrin,1968). The model suggests that memory is made up of three separate components; encoding where sensory information enters memory, storage, where the information is stored, further broken down into short and long-term memory and lastly retrieval, the process of recalling the information. Whilst this model has been used to further our understanding with many researchers using it as a basis for ongoing research it has been met with some criticism. The assumption that the three areas of memory work independently has been said to be over-simplistic and does not account for aspects of memory recall such as memory distortion and further criticism of how memory is said to transfer between short and long-term memory (Baddeley et al., 2019).
Neuropsychology on the other hand looks at individuals with memory disorders such as amnesia and brain lesions. Amnesia is a condition associated with temporary or permanent memory loss whilst brain lesions are said to hinder memory function (Fergerson et al., 2019; Markowitsch & Staniloiu, 2012). Advances in our knowledge have been attributed to clinical cases such as the case of Penfield and Miller (1958) where bilateral removal of the hippocampus of patient HM was performed to alleviate intractable epilepsy. The removal of the hippocampus resulted in the loss of HM’s declarative memory, which is the ability to recall information consciously such as events and previous experiences. This therefore supported the theory that the hippocampus is the location where declarative memories are formed (Camina & Güell, 2017). In a further case, patient Clive Wearing a musician, suffered from anterograde amnesia preventing his ability to form new memories but still retaining many historically learned skills such as his ability to play the piano, known as procedural memory (Zichlin, 2011). The amnesia was believed to be caused by viral encephalitis inflaming areas of the brain and damaging neurons, astrocytes, and microglia in the temporal lobes (Bohmwald et al., 2021). This case enabled researchers to differentiate between declarative and procedural memory and suggests that memory formation and retrieval are governed by neural mechanisms (Suddendorf et al., 2011).
In summary, cognitive psychology and cognitive neuropsychology especially in combination have made significant contributions to our understanding of memory leading to advancements in our treatment of memory disorders and subsequent behaviours.
References
American Psychological Association. (2018). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Cognitive Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/cognitive-psychology
Atkinson, R.C.; Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). “Chapter: Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes”. In Spence, K.W.; Spence, J.T. (eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press. pp. 89–195
Baddeley, A. D., Hitch, G. J., & Allen, R. J. (2019). From short-term store to multicomponent working memory: The role of the modal model. Memory & Cognition, 47(4), 575-588. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-018-0878-5
Bohmwald, K., Andrade, C. A., Gálvez, N. M. S., Mora, V. P., Muñoz, J. T., & Kalergis, A. M. (2021). The Causes and Long-Term Consequences of Viral Encephalitis. Front Cell Neurosci, 15, 755875. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2021.755875
Camina, E., & Güell, F. (2017). The Neuroanatomical, Neurophysiological and Psychological Basis of Memory: Current Models and Their Origins. Front Pharmacol, 8, 438. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00438
Ferguson, M. A., Lim, C., Cooke, D., Darby, R. R., Wu, O., Rost, N. S., Corbetta, M., Grafman, J., & Fox, M. D. (2019). A human memory circuit derived from brain lesions causing amnesia. Nat Commun, 10(1), 3497. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11353-z
Markowitsch, H. J., & Staniloiu, A. (2012). Amnesic disorders. The Lancet, 380(9851), 1429-1440. https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/PDFs/1980s/1989/KihlstromSchacter_FunctAmn1989.pdf
Penfield, W., & Milner, B. (1958). Memory deficit produced by bilateral lesions in the hippocampal zone. AMA Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 79(5), 475-497.
Roediger, H., & Yamashiro, J. (2019). History of Cognitive Psychological Memory Research. In (pp. 165-215). https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108290876
Suddendorf, T., Addis, D. R., & Corballis, M. C. (2011). Mental time travel and shaping of the human mind. M. Bar, 344-354.
Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M. N. M., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory. Front Psychol, 8, 1454. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454
Zichlin, M. (2011). Procedural Memory. In J. S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 2033-2034). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1143
Zlotnik, G., & Vansintjan, A. (2019). Memory: An Extended Definition. Front Psychol, 10, 2523. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02523
