Hello there, please help me finish my assignment !
First, here is the guidelines for the assignment, I also have notes I’ve gathered but I can’t finish the writing in time!
Guidelines:
In accordance with the syllabus of PS3626 – Social Psychology – Theories & Applications, you are expected to carry out a Critical Review Paper. For this assignment, you will be assessed on Learning Outcomes 1,2,3, & 4. The word limit is 2,500 – 3,000 words.Please note: Each student is expected to adhere to the word limit to avoid formal penalization in terms of grade deduction. The upper word limit is 3,000 words. Papers with a deviation of 10% will not get penalized.Materials written above 10% deviation, and above the total length, will not be read, and thus not assessed by the examiners. As a result, this will directly affect the point earned.If all assessed areas are underdeveloped, this will affect the points earned for all assessed areas accordingly. 25 Sources Minimum !
Your assignment, moreover, involves you carrying out a critical review paper: At all times, your critical review paper should follow APA/BPS formatting procedures, and this will be incorporated in the assessment criteria. Furthermore, please note, that any work submitted will be penalized according to the institutional regulations.
The Review Paper will assess Learning Outcomes 1,2,3, and 4.More specifically, the Learning Outcomes state the following:
Learning Outcome 1: Discuss social-psychological issues from a theoretical and historical perspective, showing an appreciation of cultural and ethical considerations.
Learning Outcome 2: Critically evaluate the discourse of Social Perception.
Learning Outcome 3: Discuss issues pertaining to attitude formation and persuasion, with an understanding of attribution theories and biases.
Learning Outcome 4: Apply knowledge of social-psychological theories to real life situations.
In alignment with the above, you are to choose one (1) of the following two (2) topics to answer:
Thematic Topic 1. Sex & Cultural Differences in Relation to Conformity and Obedience: Is there a case for scientists to discuss?
Are there differences amongst men and women in the levels of conformity and obedience? If, so, you should evaluate your answer considering social psychological theories and suitable evidence that social psychologists’ may attest to. Could sex differences in levels of social influence be real – or are they a reflection of society’s assumptions about men and women? What evidence supports such claims? Further, your answer should reflect on cultural differences in conformity – and indeed, are some societies more conformists than others? Provide examples and evidence to support your claims.
Notes/Drafts:
ChatGPT DO NOT USE AS IT IS!!!
What is Conformity in social Psychology?
When social psychologists talk of conformity, they specifically refer to the tendency of people to change their perceptions, opinions, and behavior in ways that are consistent with social or group norms.
Conformity in social psychology refers to the tendency of individuals to adjust their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to align with the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of a group or the prevailing social norms. It involves going along with the crowd, even if one’s own beliefs or preferences may differ from the group’s, in order to fit in, gain social approval, or avoid social rejection.
Although not everyone is the same, people in general find it difficult to breach social norms. In an early demonstration of this point, research assistants were recruited to ask subway passengers to give up their seats—a conspicuous violation of the norm of acceptable conduct. Many of the assistants could not carry out their assignment. In fact, some of those who tried it became so anxious that they pretended to be ill just to make their request appear justified (Milgram & Sabini, 1978).
Key points about conformity include:
1. Normative Conformity: This type of conformity occurs when individuals conform to the group’s norms and behaviors to gain social acceptance or avoid disapproval. It is driven by the desire to fit in and be liked by others.
2. Informational Conformity: Informational conformity occurs when individuals look to the group for guidance or information when they are uncertain about a particular situation. In such cases, they may conform because they believe the group has more accurate or relevant knowledge.
3. Asch Conformity Experiment: One of the classic experiments that studied conformity was conducted by Solomon Asch. In his experiment, participants were asked to judge the length of lines. When confederates in the study provided obviously incorrect answers, many participants conformed to the group’s incorrect judgments.
4. Factors Influencing Conformity: Several factors can influence the likelihood and extent of conformity, including group size, unanimity within the group, anonymity, and the level of commitment to one’s own beliefs. Larger groups and unanimous group opinions tend to increase conformity.
5. Public vs. Private Conformity: Individuals may conform publicly (in their behavior or verbal responses) while privately maintaining their own beliefs. This distinction highlights that people may not always change their personal attitudes or beliefs but may conform outwardly to avoid social repercussions.
6. Cultural and Situational Differences: The level of conformity can vary across cultures and contexts. Some cultures may place a higher value on individualism, while others may emphasize collectivism and group harmony, leading to differences in conformity behaviors.
Conformity is a fundamental aspect of social behavior and can have both positive and negative consequences. It can lead to social cohesion and cooperation within a group, but it can also result in individuals suppressing their own unique perspectives and ideas. Understanding the psychology of conformity is crucial in studying group dynamics, social influence, and the impact of social norms on individual behavior.
People understandably have mixed feelings about conformity. On the one hand, adherence to social norms is necessary if individuals are to maintain communities and coexist peacefully, as when people assume their rightful place in a waiting line. Yet at other times, conformity can have harmful con- sequences, as when people drink too heavily at parties, cheat on taxes, or tell offensive jokes because others are doing the same. For the social psycholo- gist, the goal is to understand the conditions that promote conformity versus independence and the reasons for these behaviors. To this day, perhaps now more than ever, this topic fascinates social psychologists (see Van Kleef et al., 2019).
What is Obedience in social psychology?
Obedience in social psychology refers to a person’s compliance with the instructions or orders given by an authority figure, even if those instructions go against the person’s own moral beliefs, values, or ethical standards. Obedience is a social behavior that is often studied in the context of obedience experiments, with one of the most famous being the Milgram experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s.
Key points about obedience include:
1. Authority Figure: Obedience typically involves the presence of an authority figure who issues commands or instructions. This authority figure is usually seen as having legitimate power or expertise.
2. Conflict of Loyalties: Obedience often creates a conflict between an individual’s loyalty to the authority figure and their own moral or ethical values. People may obey even when the actions they are instructed to carry out seem morally objectionable.
3. Milgram Experiment: In the Milgram experiment, participants were instructed by an authority figure to deliver increasingly severe electric shocks to a person (a confederate) when that person answered questions incorrectly. Despite hearing the person’s apparent distress and pleas to stop, many participants continued to administer shocks as ordered by the authority figure.
4. Factors Influencing Obedience: Several factors can influence the degree of obedience, including the perceived legitimacy and credibility of the authority figure, the proximity of the authority figure, the presence of peers or onlookers, and the level of personal responsibility felt by the individual.
5. Ethical Concerns: Obedience experiments like the Milgram study have raised ethical concerns about the potential harm to participants and the need to ensure informed consent and debriefing. These experiments have also sparked discussions about the ethical boundaries of psychological research.
6. Relevance to Real-World Situations: The study of obedience has practical implications for understanding real-world situations in which people may engage in harmful or unethical actions because they are following orders from authority figures. This has been observed in contexts like the military, law enforcement, and organizational settings.
Obedience is a complex and often controversial topic in social psychology. It raises important questions about the extent to which individuals will obey authority figures, even when those orders conflict with their personal values and ethical principles. Understanding the factors that influence obedience is essential for addressing issues related to power, control, and moral decision-making in society.
What is social influence in social psychology?
The term social influence refers to the ways that people are affected by the real and imagined pressures of others (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; Kiesler & Kiesler, 1969).
Social influence in social psychology refers to the ways in which individuals affect the thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of others. It involves the power of one person or group to shape or change the attitudes and behaviors of another person or group through various social processes and mechanisms. Social influence can manifest in a variety of forms and settings, and it plays a crucial role in understanding human behavior and group dynamics.
In a meta-analysis of 226 experiments using varying methods, Emiel Cracco and others (2018) found that automatic imita- tion is a robust human tendency that can occur for a range of behaviors and without effort or awareness.
Tanya Char- trand and John Bargh (1999) set up participants to work on a task with a partner, a confederate who exhibited the habit of rubbing his face or shaking his foot. Hidden cameras recording the interaction revealed that without realizing it, par- ticipants mimicked these motor behaviors, rubbing their face or shaking a foot to match their partner’s behavior. Chartrand and Bargh dubbed this phenomenon the “chameleon effect” after the reptile that changes colors according to its phys- ical environment.
The same is true of the way we mimic the language we hear in other people’s expressions and speech styles. To illustrate, Molly Ireland and James Pennebaker (2010) found that college students answering essay questions or working from excerpts of fictional writing tended in subtle ways to match the language style of the target material to which they were exposed—for example, in terms of their use of personal pronouns (such as I, you), conjunctions (such as but, while), and quantifiers (such as many, few).
Some key concepts and forms of social influence include:
1. Conformity: Conformity, as mentioned earlier, is the tendency to adjust one’s attitudes or behaviors to align with the attitudes and behaviors of a group or societal norms. People conform for various reasons, such as the desire to fit in, gain social approval, or reduce social discomfort.
2. Obedience: Obedience is the compliance with orders or instructions from an authority figure, often despite personal moral reservations. Obedience can involve following commands or requests from authority figures in settings like the military, law enforcement, or organizational hierarchies.
3. Compliance: Compliance refers to the act of conforming to a request or suggestion from another person. Compliance is often based on the desire to be liked, the belief that the request is reasonable, or the influence of reciprocity and social norms.
4. Persuasion: Persuasion involves attempts to change another person’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through communication and argumentation. It relies on various persuasive techniques, such as appealing to emotions, providing evidence, and using social proof.
5. Social Norms: Social norms are unwritten rules or expectations within a group or society that influence behavior. Conforming to social norms is a common form of social influence, as people tend to follow these norms to avoid deviance or to gain social acceptance.
6. Social Roles: Social roles are the expected behaviors and responsibilities associated with a particular position or status within a group or society. Individuals may change their behavior to align with the role they are expected to fulfill.
7. Group Influence: Groups can exert significant influence on individual behavior through processes like groupthink, where members of a group prioritize harmony and consensus over critical thinking, and deindividuation, where individuals lose their self-awareness when part of a crowd.
8. Minority Influence: Even individuals or smaller groups can exert influence over larger groups by consistently expressing their views, which may eventually lead to a shift in the majority’s beliefs or behaviors.
Social influence is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and group dynamics. It shapes how we make decisions, interact with others, and adapt to the social environments in which we find ourselves. Researchers in social psychology study these various forms of social influence to better understand human behavior and to explore how individuals and groups impact each other in different social contexts.
Stereotype and gender role concepts:
Stereotypes and gender roles are important concepts in social psychology that are related to the ways in which individuals perceive and behave in relation to gender. These concepts can influence our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors regarding men and women and are shaped by social and cultural factors. Here’s an explanation of both concepts:
1. Stereotypes:
Stereotypes are generalized beliefs or assumptions about the characteristics, attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with a particular social group, such as men or women. These stereotypes are often based on shared cultural, social, or historical beliefs and can influence how individuals perceive, judge, and interact with others.
In the context of gender, gender stereotypes refer to the widespread beliefs and expectations about what is considered typical or appropriate for men and women. Common gender stereotypes include:
– Men are strong, assertive, and rational.
– Women are nurturing, emotional, and passive.
Stereotypes can lead to biases, prejudice, and discrimination. For example, if someone holds a stereotype that women are not suited for leadership roles, they may be less likely to support a female candidate for a managerial position, despite her qualifications. Stereotypes can also impact self-perception and self-esteem, as individuals may internalize societal expectations about their gender.
2. Gender Roles:
Gender roles are the social and cultural expectations, norms, and behaviors associated with being a man or a woman in a particular society. These roles can vary across different cultures and time periods and dictate how individuals are expected to behave, based on their gender. Gender roles can encompass various aspects of life, including family, work, relationships, and personal expression.
Common gender roles include:
– Men as breadwinners and protectors.
– Women as caregivers and homemakers.
Gender roles can limit individual freedom and expression, as individuals may feel pressured to conform to these roles to gain social approval and acceptance. However, it’s important to note that gender roles are not fixed, and they have evolved and continue to change over time as societies progress and challenge traditional expectations.
Social psychologists study stereotypes and gender roles to understand how these beliefs and expectations impact individual and group behavior, as well as how they contribute to issues such as gender inequality, discrimination, and gender-based violence. Challenging and redefining gender stereotypes and roles is an ongoing process that aims to promote more equitable and inclusive societies where individuals are free to express themselves and pursue their goals without being limited by their gender.
In social psychology, how are levels of obedience, conformity and social influence measured?
In social psychology, levels of obedience, conformity, and social influence are typically measured through a combination of observational, experimental, and self-report methods. These methods help researchers assess the extent to which individuals conform to social norms, obey authority figures, or are influenced by the behaviors and opinions of others. Here are some common measurement techniques for each of these social phenomena:
1. Obedience:
– Laboratory Experiments: Obedience is often studied through controlled laboratory experiments, such as the famous Milgram experiment. In these experiments, participants are given explicit instructions by an authority figure to perform certain actions or behaviors. Researchers measure obedience by assessing the extent to which participants follow these instructions.
– Compliance with Orders: Researchers measure obedience by evaluating the degree to which individuals comply with specific orders, requests, or commands issued by authority figures in a controlled setting.
– Behavioral Observations: Obedience can be measured through direct observations of participants’ behaviors, such as whether they carry out the instructed actions, even when these actions may be ethically or morally questionable.
2. Conformity:
– Asch Conformity Paradigm: Conformity is often measured using the Asch conformity paradigm. In this experimental setup, participants are asked to make judgments about visual stimuli (e.g., line lengths) in the presence of a group. The group provides incorrect answers, and researchers measure the extent to which participants conform to these incorrect judgments.
– Self-Report Surveys: Conformity can also be assessed through self-report questionnaires or surveys, where individuals report their own experiences of conforming to group norms or societal expectations in real-life situations.
– Behavioral Observations: Observers may directly assess conformity by recording individuals’ behaviors in real-world settings, such as group dynamics during meetings, social interactions, or public demonstrations.
3. Social Influence:
– Observational Studies: Researchers often conduct observational studies in naturalistic settings to examine how individuals are influenced by others in their everyday interactions. These studies involve observing and recording behaviors and interactions.
– Self-Report Surveys: Social influence can also be assessed using self-report surveys that ask participants about their experiences of being influenced by others, including family members, friends, or media.
– Experiments: Experimental studies are designed to manipulate and measure the impact of various forms of social influence, such as persuasive messages, peer pressure, or social norms, on individuals’ attitudes, behaviors, or decision-making.
– Content Analysis: Content analysis is used to examine the influence of media and advertising on individuals’ perceptions and behaviors. Researchers analyze media content to determine how it may shape people’s beliefs, values, and behaviors.
These measurement methods allow social psychologists to gain insights into the extent to which individuals are influenced by social factors, authority figures, and group dynamics. The choice of measurement method depends on the specific research questions and the social phenomenon being studied, as well as ethical considerations when conducting experiments related to obedience and conformity.
Question : Are there differences among men and women in the level of conformity and obedience?
Research on conformity and obedience has shown that there can be differences in the levels of conformity and obedience between men and women, but these differences are not always consistent and can vary depending on the specific context and factors involved. Here are some key points to consider:
1. Context and Situational Factors: The levels of conformity and obedience can be influenced by the specific social and situational context. Factors such as the presence of authority figures, the nature of the task, and the group dynamics can all play a role in determining how individuals, both men and women, respond to social pressure.
2. Gender Norms and Expectations: Gender norms and societal expectations can also influence how men and women conform or obey. In some cultures, there may be traditional gender roles that affect behavior in group settings. For example, men may be socialized to be more assertive or independent, while women may be socialized to be more cooperative and nurturing. These gender roles can influence behavior in conformity and obedience experiments.
3. Research Findings: Some research studies have suggested that there may be gender differences in conformity and obedience. For example, some studies have found that women may be more likely to conform in certain situations, while men may be more likely to engage in assertive or disobedient behavior. However, these differences are not consistent across all studies and may depend on various factors.
4. Individual Variation: It’s important to note that there is significant individual variation within both men and women. Not all men or women will conform or obey to the same extent, and individual personality traits, values, and personal experiences can play a significant role in determining how a person responds to social pressure.
5. Evolutionary and Psychological Perspectives: Some researchers have proposed evolutionary and psychological explanations for potential gender differences in conformity and obedience. These explanations suggest that men and women may have evolved different social strategies based on their roles in ancestral societies, but these theories are subject to debate and further research.
In summary, while there may be some differences in conformity and obedience between men and women, these differences are not absolute and can vary depending on a range of factors. It’s essential to consider the specific context, cultural norms, and individual differences when examining these phenomena. Additionally, research in this area continues to evolve, and our understanding of gender differences in conformity and obedience may change over time as new studies are conducted.
Question: Could sex differences, in levels of social influence be real? Or are they a reflection of society’s assumptions about men and women?
The question of whether sex differences in levels of social influence are real or a reflection of societal assumptions about men and women is a complex one, and it involves both nature and nurture factors.
Here are some key points to consider:
1. Nature vs. Nurture: Sex differences in behavior and social influence can be influenced by both biological (nature) and socialization (nurture) factors. Biological differences between men and women, such as hormonal and neurological factors, can play a role in shaping behavior, but so can the social and cultural norms that individuals are exposed to from a young age.
2. Socialization and Gender Roles: Societal expectations and gender roles play a significant role in shaping how men and women behave in social situations. These expectations can lead to differences in social influence. For example, societal norms that encourage men to be more assertive and women to be more nurturing can impact how they respond to social pressure.
3. Social Construction of Gender: Many researchers argue that gender itself is a social construct, meaning that the roles and behaviors associated with masculinity and femininity are products of societal assumptions and norms. This perspective suggests that differences in social influence between men and women are more a reflection of societal constructs than inherent, biologically driven distinctions.
4. Cultural Variation: The degree of sex differences in social influence can vary across different cultures. Some cultures may have more pronounced gender differences in social influence, while others may have fewer differences or different expectations for men and women. This highlights the influence of culture in shaping these patterns.
5. Individual Variation: It’s important to remember that individual variation is significant. Not all men or women conform to societal expectations or exhibit the same patterns of social influence. Many people deviate from traditional gender roles and norms, and their behavior is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including personality, personal values, and experiences.
6. Ongoing Debate: The question of the extent to which sex differences in social influence are real or socially constructed remains a topic of debate in the fields of psychology, sociology, and gender studies. Researchers continue to explore this issue, and our understanding of gender and social influence may evolve over time.
In summary, the differences in levels of social influence between men and women are likely a combination of both real, biologically influenced factors and socially constructed norms and expectations. The interplay of nature and nurture, along with cultural variation and individual differences, makes it challenging to attribute these differences solely to one factor. It’s crucial to recognize that gender is a complex and multifaceted concept, and individuals should not be reduced to stereotypes or limited by societal assumptions about what it means to be a man or a woman.
