Paper Criteria: Write in paragraph form
Argument
In a paragraph, address the argument in the article:
What is the issue being addressed in the argument?
What is the author’s conclusion on the issue?
Provide at least three reasons to support the conclusion
Analysis
In a 2-4 paragraphs, analyze the following:
Explain the author’s values that are evident in the argument.
Why do you think the author values this?
Based on the values, explain the author’s assumptions in the argument.
Why do they hold these assumptions?
Was there any research to support the argument or was there a lack of research?
Does that strengthen or weaken the argument?
Identify at least two logical fallacies you found in the argument.
Name the fallacy and explain how it was used in the argument.
Do you think using these fallacies was effective? Why or why not?
Discuss whether or not you felt the argument was convincing. Focus on the reasons given to support.
What other evidence could the author have given to make the argument stronger?
Response
In a paragraph, share your thoughts on the article:
Do you believe the argument was good enough to support the conclusion? Why or why not?
Do you agree or disagree with the author’s argument?
Provide at least three reasons to support your point.
———— Individuals and families experiencing homelessness lack a permanent place of residence. People faced with homelessness may seek out temporary residence in a public shelter, live in their vehicle, or sleep in public spaces. Others find shelter with friends or family, join homeless camps, or live in motels. The US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) estimated in its 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) that 552,830 people were homeless in the United States on any given day that year. Of this population, about 20 percent were children under age eighteen. Additionally, about 24 percent of those experiencing homelessness were considered chronically homeless. HUD identifies chronic homelessness as when individuals with disabilities experience a continuous year of homelessness or have experienced at least four periods of homelessness during the previous three years and the combined duration of those periods totals at least one year.
Numerous factors can lead a person or family to experience homelessness. Economic, social, and political issues, as well as natural disasters, have forced thousands of people to remain without stable housing. Personal experiences and systemic problems can create the conditions in which homelessness occurs. Securing a permanent living situation can be complicated by a range of obstacles. These components can include economic misfortune, generational poverty, a lack of support for migrants and refugees, or improper discharge planning for individuals leaving hospitals or correctional facilities. HISTORY OF HOMELESSNESS IN THE UNITED STATES
Homelessness is a perennial issue in the United States that dates back to colonial times. The problem increased significantly during the country’s transition from a predominantly agrarian economy to an industrial one during the eighteenth century. During the colonial period, homelessness was caused by varying economic and social factors; however, this condition was widely viewed as a character flaw or moral deficiency of the affected individual, rather than any consequence of external circumstances. Industrialization and increased urbanization created new housing challenges in the 1800s that were further complicated by the Civil War (1861–1865) and the introduction of the railroad.
The Great Depression (1929–1939) triggered a new wave of homelessness as millions of people lost their jobs. Shantytowns—communities of makeshift shacks—sprang up in rural areas and around cities. People referred to the communities as “Hoovervilles” after President Herbert Hoover, who took office the same year the Depression began. In 1933 Hoover’s successor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, introduced the New Deal, a group of policies created to spur economic recovery, provide jobs and relief to the unemployed, and institute systemic reform to reduce the homeless population and address other social ills.
The United States experienced an increase in homelessness following the end of World War II (1939–1945), a common occurrence following the disruption and displacement associated with war. However, the federal government minimized the war’s impact through programs like the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as the GI Bill. The postwar era also saw significant economic growth that enabled more workers to purchase homes and settle in permanent communities.
Following the war, the mental health community began exploring the benefits of deinstitutionalization and community-based care. In 1963 Congress passed the Community Mental Health Act (CMHA), which released long-term patients from state psychiatric hospitals into outpatient programs. In several states, however, the community-based programs proposed under the CMHA went underfunded. Without state resources or an adequate support network, members of the mentally ill population increasingly became homeless.
By the 1980s, a decline in manufacturing and a rise in service industries cost many unskilled laborers their jobs and homes. Substantial cuts to domestic spending were made between 1980 and 1983, causing cutbacks in public housing, health care, and welfare benefits that left many women, children, retired people, veterans, and individuals with mental illness unable to afford housing. Following efforts by advocacy groups battling homelessness, Congress passed the Urgent Relief for the Homeless Act in 1987, which made provisions for a number of programs to aid and address homeless populations across the nation, including those that would provide food, shelter, and health services. The act was renamed the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act later that year and again in 2000 as the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act, in honor of two deceased members of Congress who were staunch supporters of the legislation. With the passage of the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, Congress amended the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act to include provisions that make it easier for students to attend and succeed in school while experiencing homelessness.
HEALTH CARE AND HOMELESSNESS
Poor health can be a symptom of homelessness as well as the catalyst for economic difficulty. Inadequate health insurance and the struggle to pay for serious illnesses or disabilities can place individuals at risk for homelessness. According to a study published in the American Journal of Public Health in February 2019, 66.5 percent of personal bankruptcies in the United States are caused by health issues. People’s health may also decline after becoming homeless. The National Health Care for the Homeless Council (NHCHC) reports that homeless people experience higher rates of illness and an average life expectancy twelve years shorter than the rest of the population.
Members of this population can also suffer from a lack of access to good nutrition, personal hygiene, and basic first aid. They may encounter complications with receiving regular, uninterrupted treatment for serious health conditions such as pneumonia, cancer, and liver disease. People living on the streets or spending most of their time outside are at increased risk for health conditions associated with weather exposure such as frostbite, immersion foot (also known as trench foot), and hypothermia. Researchers from the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) both estimate that about 700 homeless people die from hypothermia each year.
In 1987 the McKinney-Vento Act authorized the US Department of Health and Human Services to administer the Health Care for the Homeless (HCH) program. The program merged with other health care programs under the Consolidated Health Center Program in 1996. Over two hundred clinics and other projects throughout the United States receive federal grant support each year as part of the HCH program. Grants have been used to launch initiatives such as setting up hospitals in shelters and offering health care services at soup kitchens (places where food is offered for free or for reduced prices for those who need it).
AFFORDABLE HOUSING AND PUBLIC HOUSING
To address the factors that contribute to homelessness, the federal government began to launch affordable housing programs and public housing developments in the first half of the twentieth century. In 1923 the country’s first public housing project opened in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The National Housing Act of 1934 established the Federal Housing Administration to provide insurance for private homes, while the Housing Act of 1937 allowed for the creation of public housing for low-income Americans. Such programs and others have been overseen by HUD since the department’s creation in 1965.
Subsequent federal programs and laws have targeted unfair housing practices as well as economic obstacles preventing wider homeownership. Tenants living in public housing projects typically pay the housing agency 30 percent of their income for rent and utilities. In 2018, according to HUD, nearly two million people lived in public housing projects in the United States. HUD provided more than five million people with housing choice vouchers that year.
In the twenty-first century, many cities and counties have continued to establish a variety of housing services to assist the homeless, including emergency shelters and transitional housing. Urban studies experts contend that programs that target specific needs or provide comprehensive services can be most effective at preventing or helping people transition out of homelessness. Stable housing can allow individuals to address factors that have contributed to their housing difficulties, such as job loss, substance use disorder, or an abusive relationship. Permanent supportive housing, for example, is a model that combines affordable housing, health care, and other services. Federal grants enable rapid rehousing programs to provide individuals and families at risk of homelessness with financial assistance and support services. Moreover, such programs can reduce the amount of time needed to transition from homelessness to a more stable living situation.
The supply of affordable housing has been unable to keep up with demand. Housing experts attribute part of the increased demand to the decline in homeownership spurred by the 2007–2008 financial crisis. According to a 2018 report by the Pew Charitable Trusts, 38 percent of renters in the United States were “rent-burdened” in 2015, meaning that their rent exceeded the 30 percent of pretax income threshold recommended by HUD. Meanwhile, 17 percent of renters paid more than 50 percent of their pretax income for housing. Of the rent-burdened population, 64 percent had less than $400 in available cash, placing them in a precarious financial situation. In his budget request for the fiscal year 2020, President Donald Trump called for a reduction in HUD’s total budget but a substantial increase in the amount budgeted for rental assistance. DISCRIMINATION AND CRIMINALIZATION
In addition to economic and health factors, discrimination also contributes to the high number of homeless people in the United States, particularly within the LGBTQ community. According to results from the National Center for Transgender Equality’s 2015 survey of the transgender population, 23 percent of transgender people had experienced housing discrimination within the previous year. The survey also revealed that 30 percent had been homeless at least once during their lives, and 12 percent believed that they had become homeless as a direct result of their transgender status. Transgender people have reported discrimination, harassment, and other mistreatment at homeless shelters, leading many to avoid such services. Rejection and discrimination by family members have also contributed to an increase in homeless LGBTQ youth. According to estimates by the nonprofit organization True Colors United, as many as 40 percent of homeless youth identify as LGBTQ, though only 7 percent of young people in the United States identify as such. A 2017 study by the University of Chicago found that LGBTQ youth have a 120 percent higher risk of becoming homeless than other youth.
Since the early 1990s, those coping with homelessness have faced increasing criminalization of homeless activities by local and state governments, including sleeping, eating, sitting, and begging in public spaces. According to a 2019 report from the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 24 percent of US cities impose citywide bans on begging in any public space, while 76 percent prohibit begging in select places. Eighteen percent of cities criminalize sleeping anywhere in public; 27 percent prohibit sleeping in specific public places such as parks; 43 percent prohibit sleeping in a parked vehicle; and 9 percent have policies forbidding people from sharing food with the homeless.
Several states have proposed adopting a Homeless Bill of Rights that would forbid local governments from passing laws to restrict certain behaviors. Legislation has repeatedly been introduced in Colorado to protect the homeless population from public ordinances that criminalize nonviolent behavior. Lawmakers unsuccessfully tried to advance protections through the proposed Right to Rest Act in the state legislature in 2018. Activists in Denver, Colorado, campaigned in support of Ordinance 300, also called the Right to Survive Initiative, a referendum held in May 2019 to determine whether to allow people to rest and shelter themselves in public spaces. Less than one-fifth of Denver voters cast their ballot in support of the Right to Survive Initiative. Such proposals have received significant pushback from business owners and others who worry that decriminalizing certain public behaviors would threaten public safety or local economic interests.
———– “Homelessness.” Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection, Gale, 2019. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/PC3021900081/OVIC?u=mcc_mesa&sid=OVIC&xid=742acf3d. Accessed 3 May 2021.
