Choose at least two of the ten theorists we have discussed this semester. Compare and contrast them by:
(1) explaining their theories, while focusing on their similarities and differences, and –
(2) choose a particular idea, theme, or question, such as: individual’s relationship to society, inequality, deviance, psychoanalysis, romantic love, individual freedom , etc. Consider how it is discussed by these two theorists.
Theorists Discussed:
1. Watson
2. Skinner
3. Freud
4. Jung
5. Allport
6. Marx
7.Weber
8. Durkheim
9. Mills
10. Erikson
NOTES FROM TEACHER ON THEORISTS:
WATSON:
The first article is John Watson’s “Psychology as the behaviorist views it” . This article was a classic in terms of its impact on the theory of psychology called behaviorism. Here is an introduction to Watson and a commentary on this article. Only the article itself is required reading… but the intro and the commentary are suggested to help you with the article.
SKINNER:
Skinner, following in the footsteps of John B. Watson, believed the final goal of behaviorism, and
ultimately psychology was “the prediction and control of behavior”(Benjamin, 1997, p.396). Of
course, with this prediction and control of behavior there comes some important philosophical
questions such as, who will be the controllers of behavior, what behaviors will be controlled,
which ones will not, and finally, will this control be to our advantage or do we lose our freedom?
This mode of thinking is where B.F. Skinner tries to make his far-reaching contribution to society
as a whole. Skinner believes that with the discovery of operant conditioning and use of
behaviorist theory that a new utopian society can be created. In his books such as, Reflections on
Behaviorism and Society, The Technology of Teaching, and most directly in Walden Two,
Skinners tries to address some of the philosophical questions raised by behaviorism and defend
his hopes for utopia. Because Skinner’s ideas reach into the realm of moral philosophy he has
come under some attack from both psychologists and philosophers. James McGraw, one of the
many Skinner opponents, says that, “Such a Utopian society would undermine the values that
many of us hold dear”(McGray, 1984, p.15 ). The purpose of this paper will be to examine
Skinner’s theory behind his utopian society, the critics who attack his plan for its brashness, and
the answers which he formulates to defend his ideas.
It is obvious that such an accomplishment as animal learning theory is important to our society,
however, what caused Skinner to try and apply it to creating a perfect world? The answer to this
question is probably comes best from Skinner himself. In Reflection on Behaviorism and Society,
Skinner talks about the time frame in which he wrote Walden Two as the end of a dark time for
civilization in the western world. The Great Depression was still a strong memory in many
American’s minds, the threat of Communism was fading because of Russia’s movement to our
side, and, maybe most importantly, the world had just seen millions of Jews executed by Hitler in
the second great World War. Observing all of these things affected Skinner’s view of the world
and motivated him to come up with a feasible solution. In the chapter Walden Two Revisited, he
says,
The world was beginning to face problems of an entirely new order of magnitude-the
exhaustion of resources, the pollution of the environment, overpopulation, and the
possibility of a nuclear holocaust, to mention only four. Physical and biological technologies
could, of course, help. We could find new sources of energy and make better use of those
we had. The world could feed itself by growing more nutritious grains and eating grain
rather than meat. More reliable methods of contraception could keep the population within
bounds. Impregnable defenses could make a nuclear war impossible. But what would
happen only if human behavior changed, and how it could be changed was still
unanswered question. How were people to be induced to use new forms of energy, to eat
grain rather than meat, and to limit the size of their families; and how were the atomic
stockpiles to be kept out of the hands of desperate leaders?(Skinner,1978,p.56)
Who Benefits From Utopia?
The general aim of the Walden Two experiment is to produce a community(culture) which
flourishes both collectively and distributively. Nevertheless, collective and distributive
flourishing is too vague for experimental design. All sorts of diverse utopian and dystopian
(e.g., We, Brave New World) aims fit under the vague heading of flourishing cultures
(McGray,1984,p.17).
Skinner’s defense against this argument is, of course, science. For example in Walden Two, the
visitors to the community continually question Frazier about the methods which he uses to create
the utopia. What makes his methods right? Why is this community perfect? Frazier suggests that
through trial and error experimentation the greatest good for everyone can be achieved. He
justifies his community as perfect by showing the happiness of all the citizens. In Freedom and
Control of Men, Skinner tries to define the “flourishing culture” as a defense against against
McGray’s claim. He says, “The upshot of this scientific approach to behavioral problems is that
people will become wise and good without trying, without having to be, without choosing to be.
The application of behavioral science to moral training will produce men who are good practically
automatically” ( Skinner, 1956,p.60) Although, this is a general idea of a flourishing utopia, the
definition of good is still up for debate. The idea that someone will be “good” without trying still
does not define what one’s behaviors will be, it only gives a generic term attached to positive
behaviors. For a model of good people, Skinner relies on the example given in Walden Two.
The reasoning behind Skinner’s theory of a science of behavior seems to be for the benefit of all
of society. Saving society from technology seems to be a reoccurring theme in Walden Two.
quote However, Lawrence Smith criticizes Skinner by saying that, “even on Skinner’s own terms
his proposals amount to an effort to solve technology’s problems with technology”( Smith,
1992,p.221) Skinner defends himself by setting up different definitions of technology. He does
not deny that there is technology involved in the science of behavior, however, he defends
Walden Two, saying that,
There is no pageantry in Walden Two-no computers, no tricky technical equipment. It’s a
simple life, rather reminiscent of an English country house in the nineteenth century, but
without the servant problem. There is technology in Walden Two, but it is concerned with
human behavior, with producing pleasant, effective personal relations-in daily life, in
education, and in the productions of goods( Skinner,1978,p.198)
Skinner believes that technology used to produce behavior for the good of a society out weighs
the negatives of technology used to improve material living.
What About Freedom?
The issue of freedom is one that is the most important to many who disagree with Skinner’s
philosophy. Even if Skinner can defend his definitions of “flourishing culture” or a positive
technology, can he defend the loss of freedom that individuals will experience with control of their
behavior? Does the ability to create a person who is good without thinking justify taking away
that individuals ability or right to be bad? Skinner, however, does not see controlling behavior as
a loss of freedom. He asks,
Must individual freedoms be “sacrificed” for the sake of the culture? Most of my critics
contend that I am saying so, but the answer depends on how people are induced to work
for the good of their culture. If they do so under a threat of punishment, then freedom
(from such a threat) is sacrificed, but if they are induced to do so through positive
reinforcement, their sense of freedom is enhanced(Skinner,1978,p.198)
FREUD:
Psychoanalytic theory postulates three personality components: the id, the ego, and the superego. In the ordinary activities of life, behavior is the product of the interaction of these three systems. The systems can be clearly differentiated only when they are in conflict; when impulses of one system are opposed by another.
The id consists of the inborn instinctive drives rooted in the biological nature of human beings. It includes everything that is inherited and present at birth. These drives are of two types. One type includes the sexual and life- preserving drives. The energy by which these do their work is called libido. The other type of drive includes the aggressive and destructive forces. At birth, according to Freud, the entire personality is id. Only later do the other systems, the ego and superego, develop out of it.
The impulses of the id strive for immediate expression or discharge. They have a peremptory, irrational character. Thus the id is said to operate in terms of the pleasure principle. The pleasure principle is the principle of tension reduction. When the tension level is raised for any reason, the id works to reduce it to a comfortable level.
The ego begins to take shape when the infant starts to recognize the difference between itself and the outside world. This system, the executive agent of the personality, mediates between the imperious demands of the id and the reality of the external world. Thus, the ego is said to operate in terms of the reality principle. The reality principle delays pleasure until a suitable object or occasion is available.
The third system, the last to appear developmentally, is the superego. This system is synonymous with the conscience. It incorporates the moral standards of one’s parents, schools, and society. The incorporation of moral standards is brought about by fear. Out of fear one accepts the standards of those who are more powerful. Once these standards have been accepted, that power is no longer a threat. The price to be paid, of course, is high. When moral principles have become internalized, they must be obeyed all the time, not merely when a parent or another agent of society is present. The superego attempts to block aggressive and sexual impulses of the id.
Freud believed the unconscious contains most of the material of the mind
Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. Only part of an iceberg can be seen above the water. In the same way, he suggested, only a small part of the mind is conscious. The conscious contents of the mind consist of those things one is aware of at a particular moment. There are other things one is not aware of but can easily be brought into consciousness. These are in the preconscious. Tactile impressions from one’s clothing, the pressure of the chair when one is sitting, and what one had for
breakfast are all examples of preconscious contents of the mind. There are other things in the mind, however, that one remembers only with great difficulty or not at all. These are in the unconscious mind.
There are few psychologists today who would deny that much human behavior has unconscious components. Unconscious motivations can reveal themselves in slips of the tongue or pen, in post-hypnotic suggestion, and in dreams. The unconscious mind is also revealed in free association, which is used in the therapeutic method developed by Freud.
Recent reports (Goode, 1999) of research on dreams may well support some of Freud’s ideas that dreams are the expression of emotional memories.
Earlier research on dreams by Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley of Harvard, had maintained what was called the “activiation-synthesis” model of dreaming. This position explained dreams as the result of some random neural signals coming from the primitive brain areas when there was rapid eye movement (REM). The higher brain centers then presumably attempted to make sense out of these noisy signals.
But Dr. Mark Solms, a neuropsychologist from London points to work by Allen Braum of NIH which reports that accompanying REM activity is also activity in the centers for emotion, motivation, memory, etc. Further, there appears to be a decrease in higher brain centers. This would seem to support Freud’s contention that dreams result from emotional memories, and that the ego (conscious control and supervision) relaxes to permit these centers to opperate.
JUNG:
He is best known as a dissenter of Freud. He started out as one of Freud’s most fervent students, but when Jung suggested different ideas from that of Freud he was rejected by Freud (Freud was very into his theory.. word for word.. he did not tolerate dissenters well) This was fortunate in one way because many offshoots of Psychoanalytic theory were created due to Freud repelling theorists who he worked with. Jung was one of these theorist and his version of Psychodynamic theory (Psychoanalytic theory is strictly Freudian.
ALLPORT:
Gordon Allport wrote regarding “The Nature of Predjudice”
MARX & WEBER:
“the communist manifesto” and “Asceticism and the spirit of Capitalism”
DURKHEIM:
Durkheim was a French sociologist in the early part of the 20th century. Durkheim
asserts that if there is anything that is pathological, it is crime. He goes so far as to
say that all criminologists would agree on this fact (except for maybe Thomas Szasz).
Crime is not only inherent to a society, but it is an inherent part of every society.
Crime offends the collective sentiment, which is especially strong when it comes to
crime in the first place. Crime is linked to the very basic conditions of social life.
According to Durkheim, despite its obvious social costs, crime is normal, because it
is part of all societies. Durkheim asserts that crime is normal, crime is functional and
crime is useful. Durkheim explains that crime is normal because a society exempt
form it is utterly impossible. According to Durkheim, the existence of crime is
normal. Common sense leads us to view crime, and all kinds of deviance as
pathological. Durkheim claims that crime makes important contributions to the
operation of a social system.
MILLS:
The major lifelong aim of C. Wright Mills was to keep sociology in the classic and
historical tradition. He asserts that sociology is intellectually and morally confused.
Most of the ideas of the classic sociologists were not open to empirical testing.
These ideas were interpretive, that oriented individuals to numerous ways of
examining social realities. The classic tradition that Mills longs for has been
replaced by anthropology, political science, social psychology, and economics. These
disciplines have become so integrated, so as to allow us to examine the structure of
society in its whole. So, according to Mills, the crisis in social science today (written
some time ago) has two main features; the retreat into the supposed neutrality of
sheer fact and the classic tradition. Weber was responsible for sophisticating the
idea of class. In “The Classic Tradition” Mills mentions that individual malaise is
attributed to a condition called anomie, which of course was coined by Emile
Durkheim. Spencer’s main theme was evolution. According to Mills, the most
valuable legacy of Western Civilization is Classic Sociology.
ERIKSON:
Erikson’s most important contribution to Psychology was his expanding the developmental theories past adolescence. Almost all of the developmental theorists (i.e. Freud, Piaget, Kohlberg, etc) end their theory at adolescence (adolescence is the final stage). Most psychological theories of development probably ended at adolescence because theories of physical development end at adolescence as well (in terms of what physically develops in our body its all downhill after 18). It was Erikson who first recognized that we Psychologically continue to grow and struggle long after our body stops growing.
RUBRIC:
THEORETICAL CONTENT:
Demonstrates solid understanding of the major themes by using readings and lectures to define concepts. Arguments are placed within the broad discussions outlined in the course.
LOGIC AND COHERENCE:
Theories and central concepts are clearly presented. Arguments are supported with three or more relevant details and information. Uses key quotations from the readings.
APPLICATION OF THEORIES AND CONCEPTS:
Theories were utilized effectively to make sense of the arguments. Conclusions are presented with appropriate evidence. Clearly and creatively compares and contrasts the various theorists.
QUALITY OF WRITING:
Clear organization which includes an introduction, and transition sentences to
connect major ideas, and conclusion. There are few and/or grammatical or spelling errors. Ideas and evidence are correctly cited.
