Name: ¬¬¬¬¬¬__________________ Final Exam For one of the following arguments: 1) put the argument into its deductive form (a list of premises leading to the conclusion), 2) assess the validity of the argument, 3) assess the soundness of the argument. Option 1: “Had those, who would persuade us, that there are innate Principles, not taken them together in gross; but considered, separately, the parts, out of which those Propositions are made, they would not, perhaps, have been so forward to believe they were innate. Since, if the Ideas, which made up those Truths, were not [innate], it was impossible, that the Propositions, made up of them, should be innate, or our Knowledge of them be born with us. For if the Ideas be not innate, there was a time, when the Mind was without those Principles; and then, they will not be innate, but be derived from some other Original. For, where the Ideas themselves are not, there can be no Knowledge, no Assent, no Mental, or Verbal Propositions about them.” (Locke, Essay, Book I) *Note: a proposition is like a sentence. It is made out of ideas (just like a sentence is composed of words). “An apple is a fruit” is a proposition, composed of the ideas “apple” “is” “fruit,” etc. 2. “Madam, I cannot perceive the rational truth of your author’s opinion concerning colors made by the agitation of little spherical bodies of an ethereal matter, transmitting the action of light; for if colors were made after this manner, there would…not be any fixed or lasting color, but one color would be so various, and change faster than every minute. The truth is that there would be no certain or perfect color at all: therefore it seems altogether improbably that such liquid, rare, and disunited bodies should either keep or make inherent and fixed colors.” (Cavendish, Philosophical Letters, Letter 40, p. 151) Please initial below. _____I completed this exam by myself without seeking help from anyone other than the professor. _____ I did not consult the internet but will consult only the primary source (Locke or Cavendish), my class notes, and discussion with the professor. Submit this sheet with your typed, well-written, and edited essay exam. Put your answer on a clean page, attached to this as the cover sheet. Do not include the Tips and Strategies page. ? Tips and Strategies for Exams Step 1: Put the argument into its deductive form (list of premises leading to the conclusion). 1. Find the conclusion: What is the main point of the argument? Pay attention to conclusion indicator words like “so,” “therefore,” and “hence.” You mind find it helpful to put the premises and conclusion into your own words. This can demonstrate understanding and help you clarify the argument being made. 2. List the premises above the conclusion. Look for the reasons meant to prove the conclusion is true. These are the premises. Note: Distinguish the reasons why the conclusion is true (premises of the main argument) from the reasons why the premises are true (premises for premises, aka a “sub-argument”). Note: conclusion indicator words can also be used to designate premises that follow from other premises (also known as ‘serial premises’) when the author is providing an argument to establish the truth of a premise that itself aims to prove the main conclusion true. 3. Restructure the argument, capturing the most logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion. Put the argument in its best light. Remember, you can put the premises and conclusion into your own words. This section should be appropriately labelled and can be written as a numbered list of premises followed by a conclusion. Note: be aware of suppressed or implied premises and even conclusion. Sometimes the author sets up an argument and then assumes you will follow the reasoning without their spelling it out for you explicitly. For instance, the author may present you with an if/then statement and then affirm the conclusion, assuming you will complete the modus ponens for them (., the antecedent or “if” clause is in fact true). Sometimes an author will argue for something but never explicitly say what the conclusion (or main point of the argument) is! When you recreate an argument, you will want to make explicit any implied premises and conclusion. So be sure to list them in your recreation of the argument. Step 2: Assess the argument for Validity. 1. As you know, a valid argument is one where the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. In other words, if the premises are true the conclusion must be true. To test validity, you need to focus on the logical structure of the argument. This is where your knowledge of some deductively valid forms is useful. Demonstrate whether the premises lead to the conclusion. Hint: if the argument structure matches one of the argument forms we learned (., modus ponens, modus tollens, or disjunctive syllogism) or a combination of valid forms, then you know the argument is valid. Write this section in paragraph form and label it appropriately (. mention something about validity in the section heading). Step 3: Assess the argument for Soundness. 1. The last step will be to determine whether the premises are actually true. A sound argument is a valid argument with true premises. 2. Look at each of the premises to determine whether they are true. The truth of certain premises may be common knowledge, may depend on personal experience, or may be justified by empirical evidence. Sometimes, however, whether the premise is true or not will be a matter of philosophical debate. In such cases, to test soundness, you will want to think of a possible objection or counterexample to the premise—something that casts doubt on the truth of the premise. Provide a reason why we might think this possible objection is true. (If you really want to go for that ‘A,’ present your challenge or criticism as your own valid argument.) This section will best be written in paragraph form. Please label this section with “soundness” in the heading. If you create your own valid argument here, feel free to list this in argument from with numbered premises and conclusion.
